Gastrodiplomacy: Tantalising or Totalising Globalisation?
From internationally acclaimed dishes like Sweet and Sour Pork, Peking Roasted Duck, Hainanese Chicken Rice to classic family dishes like steamed fish with soy sauce, stir-fried morning glory with ginger and garlic, boiled pork and cabbage dumplings with a side of congee; the importance of food should not be overlooked by its mundane character. Whilst primarily for nutrition and personal satisfaction, ‘food’ can not only help facilitate social cohesion but can also proffer as a method of global diplomacy - ‘gastrodiplomacy.’
What is ‘gastrodiplomacy’? Benefits of Gastrodiplomacy: it's not all about restaurants.
First introduced in the early 2000s by Paul Rockwer and Sam Chapple-Sokol, ‘gastrodiplomacy’ is defined as ‘concerted and sustained campaigns of public relations and investment by governments and states…to increase the value and standing of their nation brand through food.’ It is currently recognised as a new form of global diplomacy, using food as a key asset in pursuing diplomatic aims in basic government-to-public diplomacy.
The reason for its success is rooted in the importance of ‘food’ as a universal element to people’s lives and has often been referred to as the ‘common dimension’; unaffected by differences in cultures and backgrounds. Food remains central in our lives. Wherever we turn to look, food is well-integrated in our social lives. From restaurants to cafes, pubs to bars, food markets to street food stalls; ‘food’ has become fundamental to our existence and has further helped shape aspects of our social and cultural behaviours.
It was once pointed out to me that ‘a meeting without food should just be an email.’ The emphasis on the underlying sentiment behind the action of ‘meal-sharing’ helps to highlight the importance of ‘food’ in its role as a facilitator of social cohesion. Not only does it provide pleasurable experiences but simultaneously strengthens our social relationships and can sometimes act as the neutral medium needed for forming new social bonds. It is further of great relevance when considered alongside the notion of ‘time’ as much of our daily interactions and routines are structured around our engagements with food.
How has ‘gastrodiplomacy’ been used by countries across the world as a method of ‘soft-power acquisition’?
‘Gastrodiplomacy’ can be executed in two forms: non-governmental and official government-endorsed and sponsored initiatives. Government-endorsed or sponsored initiatives refer to the focused efforts of governments to utilise cultural diplomacy and promote their national identity abroad.
Due to the universality of ‘food,’ it can not only cross-cultural, language and geographical barriers but is often used as an alternative tool to ‘hard power’, known as ‘soft power’, for ‘middle power’ countries to exert influence abroad. Methods like ‘gastrodiplomacy’ are prefered amongst these countries which are often outcompeted in global competitions requiring hard power.
What is novel in ‘gastrodiplomacy’ is the term’s lack of focus on the state and emphasis on the ‘national’ element to food and culture. Through the promotion of food, countries are able to redefine their national identity but also form greater bonds between the people and the nation. Through promoting their national branding abroad, they are not only able to gain global recognition but also reinforce their national strength and importance.
Examples of successful ‘gastrodiplomacy’ being practised within the Asian community include campaigns implemented by governments in Thailand, South Korea and Taiwan.
Thailand: ‘Kitchen to the World’, the ‘Food Basket of Asia’
Known to be the most successful demonstration of ‘gastrodiplomacy’ to date, the efforts of the Thai government have not gone unfounded and its success is evident by increased numbers of Thai restaurants abroad, positive agricultural growth and increased rates in tourism. First proposed in 2001, the government’s plan to rebrand Thailand as the ‘Kitchen to the World’ and ‘The Food Basket of Asia’ was quick to implement. Within a year, the ‘Global Thai’ programme received its official launch and was well underway alongside a series of other gastrodiplomatic efforts to promote Thai cuisine and Thai culture to countries worldwide.
This saw the implementation of the ‘Thai Select’ initiative whereby restaurants were assessed and awarded ‘Thai Select’ certificates by the Thai Ministry of Commerce to denote their quality and authenticity. This stamp of validity from the government essentially recognised the restaurant as part of the national brand and represented Thailand in its culture and cuisine abroad. Additionally, the government has also set aside funds for global ventures; sponsoring Thai chefs to train abroad and giving out loans to restaurants and enterprises that plan to expand abroad. The government’s actions have been successful in raising diplomatic awareness for the country abroad. It has even seen New Zealand issue special visas to Thai chefs allowing them residency under the ‘Thai Chefs Work Visa.’ The dramatic increases in the number of Thai restaurants abroad from 5,500 in 2001 to over 13, 000 in 2008 are further demonstrative of the success of the programme in helping Thailand raise its international profile through promoting its culture and cuisine.
Furthermore, in addition to being a programme geared towards promoting Thai culture and cuisine, the ‘Global Thai’ programme was also an attempt at homogenising the Thai national image as well as rebrand the country as a place of rich culture, unique foods and tourism. Its relative success can be accredited to the government's efforts to write the country’s economic and agricultural sectors within the national discourse.
South Korea: ‘Global Hansik’
Modelling the ‘Global Thai’ programme, the South Korean government launched its own ‘Global Hansik’ programme back in 2008. Whilst the Korean word ‘Hansik’ literally translates to ‘Korean Food’, the programme later became known as ‘Kimchi Diplomacy’ due to kimchi being one of the staple foods in the national diet.
Image Source: Cottonbro/Pexels
Riding on the popularity generated by the rise of South Korean pop culture, also known as ‘Hallyu’, the success of Korean drama and music was crucial to the country’s cultural diplomacy and has seen great successes in the country’s increased trade in cosmetics and technology, as well as increased tourism. Whilst its efforts in ‘gastrodiplomacy’ were nearly not as extensive as the efforts conducted by the Thai government, the South Korean government were strategic in their approach to both establishing national identity and promoting the national brand. Whilst the Korean Tourism Organisation collaborated with Korean entertainers, celebrities and idols on commercial advertisements and TV show productions, government-funded Korean Culture Centres and Korean Plazas were being built in countries abroad that the country had diplomatic ties with. These centres became the venue for many Embassy or Consulate-General hosted international cultural events and food festivals complementary to the government’s efforts back in South Korea.
Taiwan: ‘All in Good Taste: Savour the Flavours of Taiwan’
Taiwan’s efforts were seen in the implementation of its ‘gastrodiplomatic’ campaign, ‘All in Good Taste: Savour the Flavours of Taiwan.’ Later known as the ‘Dim Sum’ diplomacy, Taiwan’s campaign reaped substantial successes despite the country’s lack of diplomatic recognition in the global arena. The complexity behind Taiwan’s diplomatic status is another contention altogether but the fact remains that due to a lack of diplomatic recognition, the country faces additional difficulties in establishing diplomatic ties and making it difficult for its efforts to gain any success. The country is forced to conduct cultural diplomacy as not only a means of promoting the national brand but also a means for ensuring its diplomatic survival and international recognition.
What distinguishes Taiwan’s ‘gastrodiplomatic’ efforts from those in Thailand and South Korea is the underlying emphasis on ‘survival’ and that of its differentiation from China; in both cultural terms and diplomatic recognition. In addition to the promotion of Taiwan as a desirable tourist destination, it embraces its unique national heritage by incorporating Taiwanese indigenous food culture as well as celebrating traditional Chinese culture local to the Island. These efforts not only strengthen the national identity but further cultivates a national branding which is projected to the global to encourage foreign investment and boost trade.
Greatly deserving of mention is the success of the Taiwanese ‘bubble tea’ craze that has taken over the world in recent years. Whilst in contemporary times the drink has achieved cultural significance outside of Taiwan, adapted in other East Asian cultures, its origins remain in Taiwan and its presence in various Western communities such as the Bay Area, California and even here, in London, the drink has become an icon to Taiwanese culture. Efforts conducted by the government in hosting international food and culture festivals as well as televised cooking competitions are further complementary to its promotion of the national brand, raising awareness for its diplomatic status, and stimulating greater degrees of tourism.
Image Source: Martin Bureau/PRI
Gastrodiplomacy: Tantalising or Totalising globalisation?
The gradual spread of Asian culture into countries abroad through methods like cultural diplomacy and ‘gastrodiplomacy’ can only be a good thing for the global Asian diaspora. Through methods like ‘soft power acquisition,’ countries without the necessary means in hard power are able to gain recognition and importance in the global arena. This not only helps countries promote their national identity and national brand abroad but further encourages increased trade and investment and helps bolster tourism and migration.
Gastrodiplomacy represents the intersection of two 21st century trends, globalisation and foodie culture. Whilst restaurant chains like Ding Tai Fung and Hai Di Lao have taken a lead in the new wave of international expansions of Asian restaurants, globalisation has done more than just relocating a few national favourites into various city-hubs around the world; it has ‘tantalised’ and teased-open people’s palettes to new cuisines, food types and cultures. It has brought foreign flavours and tastes to your plate, inviting you to delve deeper into their national culture. This has not only increased interconnectivity between multiple cultures but also the fusion of cultures into something uniquely different like that of the Singaporean dish, Rojak.
Image Source: http://www.seasaltwithfood.com/2014/09/fruit-rojak.html
Rojak is an iconic Singaporean dish. Taken literally to mean an ‘eclectic mix’ in Malay, the dish is found in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. Whilst there remains contentions in its history and origin, the ingredients as well as its prevalence in multiple cultures reflect the cultural diversity of Singapore and demonstrate how the fusion of cultures can create something uniquely new yet able to maintain authenticity and tradition.
However, the contention remains in whether this assimilation of culture has resulted in a ‘totalising’ effect, where the homogenising ability of globalisation has resulted in a loss of authenticity and tradition in cultures abroad. To take London as an example, the influxes of foreign cultures into the city-hub whilst has resulted in greater diversity, it becomes difficult to identify the true national dish of England when Chicken Tikka Masala is amongst the many in competition. In recognition of the United Kingdom’s colonial history, it is perhaps unsurprising that Chicken Tikka Masala has acquired its status as a national dish alongside iconic dishes like Fish and Chips, Bangers and Mash and Roast Beef. Whilst it should be taken into account of London being one of the most multicultural city-hubs in the world, when you ask a Londoner for a restaurant recommendation, it is almost always of a foreign cuisine; some of the national favourites include Italian, Chinese, Indian and American. But only second in preference to the all-time national favourite: Pub food.
Postscript: Gastrodiplomacy, Food Culture and Coronavirus
It has become truly impossible to dissociate coronavirus from every piece of work that I conduct and it's perhaps unsurprising, therefore, that I must include a short postscript of what the post-pandemic world looks like from the lenses of food culture. Whilst it's arguably too early to determine the impacts of coronavirus on gastrodiplomacy, apart from the decline in customers in Chinese restaurants abroad, the fundamentals of food culture have evidently changed.
In this article published by the Atlantic, the writer describes to us the transformations that are currently taking place in the food and drink industry. As most restaurants in the world are either closed or operating only for takeaways, not to mention a substantial amount of people currently grappling with unemployment, many have begun to take on a more active interest into home cooking.
However, the task of ‘home cooking’ is without its own challenges. Activities such as those of lengthy baking projects and time-consuming individual dishes are simply impossible for those who are unable to work from home and are caring for young children. The article addresses each of these issues in detail as well as provides a series of entertainment options for those who are looking to watch something worthwhile and potentially also learn a dish or two.
Looking for inspiration on what to cook for your next meal? Home cooking doesn’t have to mean instant noodles on the daily. Check out ‘Subtle Asian Cooking’ for some inspiration on fun and nutritious recipes to try out for your next meal!
Extra Links and Resources:
http://www.gastrodiplomacy.net/gd-explanation
Lipscomb, A., 2019. Culinary Relations: Gastrodiplomacy In Thailand, South Korea, And Taiwan. The Yale Review of International Studies. Available at: http://yris.yira.org/essays/3080
Ichijo, A., Ranta, R., 2016. Food, National Identity and Nationalism: From Everyday to Global Politics. Springer. Available at: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781137483133